Main Topics
Cells
DNA
RNA
Chromosomes
Cell Division
Introduction
New Oct-08-2002
New Scientist
Scientists get rewarded handsomely for
their discovery of how 100
genes control all cellular division.
New Scientist: Silicon and cells
Great new genetic self-decoding bio-machine photos!
Latest pictures in the gene self decoding bio-machine
The cell of any plant or cellular organism (which includes ourselves), is
highly complex! However, one of the most interesting aspects of
the cells functions, is how it reproduces itself!
The millions of DNA chemically encoded instructions that are
unwound from each chromosome and exactly reproduced and rewound
again forming a duplicate of themselves prior to cell division is
some feat! (1.7 meters length worth of helical DNA code wound up
on 23 chromosomes, in each cell which is typically 10-20um wide).
This cellular division, which occurs thousands of times in our
bodies each and every day, is unquestionably one of natures most
amazing feats.
This extraordinary process, of which I will attempt to explain
the basic concepts of below. I will not however, cover meiosis which
is somewhat different than normal cell division called mitosis.
First however, let us look at some basic concepts of the cell in
general, followed by the main part of the cell (the nucleus)
where the chromosomes/DNA are located, RNA and its sub-components
and finally - how cell division actually takes place.
In a bacteria, DNA Chromosomes are located
somewhere deep within the cell yet
extrachromosomal can be located away
from the chromosome it's self.
See Detailed Diagram of Cell
and all it's componenets
Human Cells
The variety of human cells. After fertilization by a sperm, a single human
egg cell divides again and again into many kinds of specialized cells
whose structures vary according to the functions they fill.
Some nerve cells, for example, are 3 feet long to reach from spine to toe.
This is why nerve damage is so hard to repair.
Our brain cells never reproduce either (imagine your memory copying
itself over and over again?) I don't think we could deal with having
many copies of our previous bad experiences. It's better we forget
some things that happened to us!)
About DNA
The DNA around all chromosomes is tightly wound in a helical fashion
It is actualy a double helix and thus looks like a circular
staircase ladder.
The macro miniature molecular rungs of this molecular structered DNA
carry the genetic code of all life. These molecular rungs are all evenly
spaced (as are the steps in a ladder) and are all composed of exactly 4
chemically base substances, in various combinations and order.
DNA analysis currently being done by the "Celera" and other genomic
mapping outfits, have found millions of these combinations in DNA samples
and it is listed as it is found in the form: AGCG-TTCG-CA.... etc.
Finding every one of the combinations that exist in the DNA helix
(ladder rungs) is the key to solving the genome puzzle. Only then, we
must understand what it all exactly means. That will be the next step.
For example, how proteins fold is still a complete mystery to science
and microbiologists.
Structures of Histone Proteins and Proteins Containing the Histone Fold Motif
Further, it is estimated that only 2% of this code is
actually usable or codes for anything at all. ie. The cellular
gene expression mechanism only looks at 2% of all 3 gega base
pairs of code. The rest of the code referred to in the following
ways:
- Junk DNA
- Non-coding DNA
- Secondary DNA
- Nucleomorph DNA
It is still not exactly understood what this (what i will call
memory DNA) Junk DNA is for. I will however give my
interpretation of what it is. See also:
©
Also, it has been proven that some of this ©
so called Junk DNA, is actually left ©
over from our pre-historic ancestry. ©
I suspect however, that junk DNA is there for a good ©
bloody reason. i believe that the so called junk DNA ©
is there as a fall back trace back mechanism in order ©
that after time, nature itself can reproduce ©
the same or original being or organism as prior to ©
( in the case of intense radiation,
the huge sun spot activity or other colamity such as
various other possible celestial explosions ©
which we know have happened in the billions of years ©
of evolution on this earth. Our very existance through millions of ©
years of trial and error, have built this fail safe ©
mechanism into our very genetic structure. Think of ©
the people who survived the herishoma nagasaki atomic ©
blasts. Their children are no longer afflicted with ©
perminent genetic defects, and if some are, their ©
offspring will tend to be back to normal again. ©
It would be interresting to study this to see if ©
my hypothisis is correct. ( think of a backtrace routine ©
on a typical dis-assembly of a routine in programming ) ©
Clearly, backtracing is not the same as natural program ©
progression in dealing with the normal sequence of events! ©
About RNA
RNA works with DNA and performs multiple important tasks.
RNA is not in a double helix or even a helix shape. It is rather
more linear a molecule.
RNA comes in 4 distinct forms
- mRNA or messanger RNA
- tRNA or transfer RNA
- cRNA or catalytic RNA
- rRNA or ribosomal RNA
tRNA decodes information contained in the DNA
mRNA carries the genetic information stored in the DNA out of the
cell nucleus for protein synthesis.
rRNA is involved in protein synthesis
cRNA is a catalyst to make all cell processes proceed as fast as
possible within the cell. As chemist Ronald Breslow of Columbia University
points out, "enzymes work so well that a process that takes 5 seconds
(such as reading a sentence) with enzymes -- would take 1500 years without
them.
Human Chromosomes
There exist 23 pairs of chromosomes in the center (nucleus) of each human
cell. Each cell (even if it's any one of the some 200+ different cells in
all of us) contains the same chromosomes.
Also, the genetic code (DNA) wrapped tightly around these same 23 pairs of
chromosomes in each cell, is identical. Therefore, in theory at least, a
clone of any-one of us can be made from any single cell in our body!
Every chromosome of the 23 in each cell is a different size, and has
tightly wrapped around it - a portion of the total Genetic code that
maintain and control our entire existance.
Chromosomes actually are made of a special protein skelleton, which
hold and carry (in a very tight manner), all the double helix DNA code
during cell division. They are only visible at and just prior to cell
division. Otherwise, only the cell nucleus in-which the DNA / RNA and
sub-components of the nucleus is seen by powerful microscopes and other
special techniques. In other words, chromosomes are the molecular horses
that carry our DNA.
Cellular reproduction and DNA re-sequencing
(MITOSIS)
When at first 2 new cells are formed, the chromatids of each
original 23 chromosomes unzip in each of the two cells, (2 cells
X 23 chromatids = 46 chromatids) and all DNA resides in the cell
nucleus and exists as long string(s) of chromatin with 3000MB
(mega base pairs) or 3gega base pairs of code to encode for an
estimated 60,000 - 80,000 different protein combinations which
build, maintain, and control all functions of the organism the
cell is a part of. Some even say the earth itself is a very
complex organism
In this phase (so called the interphase) no chromosomes are
visible with any man made electro-microscopes or other optical
magnifying devices.
At a certain point in a cells life, it receives input - wakeup
call - hormone - signal - growth factor and or whatever, that
it's time to duplicate.
Many processes must be undertaken before the task of duplication
can be accomplished.
First and formost, a protein scaffolding or skelliton must first
be created for each and every one of the 23 chromosomes. This is
created by special proteins called histones in the nucleus. There
even exists now a complex "Histone Code" in bioscience, which it
in itself is very complex, but I'll leave this one out for this
introduction to cellular division!
Once the scaffold structure is complete, each DNA code sequence
belonging to their respective structure, will begin a rapid (due
to specific enzyimes to greatly speed up the process), super-
coiling onto their chromosome. However; another process also
takes place simultaniously. The DNA makes a duplicate copy of
itself while doing so. (Note: The two halfs of the Chromatid that
make up the actual complete chromosome).
Now comes 4 distinct phases to complete the cell division.
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
During the Prophase, the nucleus swells due to the huge size of
all of these Chromosome Super-structures.
Next comes the Metaphase. The chromosomes move towards the center
of the nucleus.
Now comes the Anaphase. Here all 46 sister chomatids seperate at
their chromosome connection point (the centromere), (remember
they have identical DNA tightly wrapped around them like the
string in a baseball). 23 sister chomatides take position at one
end of the nucleus, and their sister chomatides head for the
opposite end of the nucleus. They are held there by some sort
of protein glue. The nuclear membrane around the nucleus disappears,
the nucleus expands and elongates, and the center of the nucleus
begins to contract. As mentioned a protein glue holds the opposite
sisters to the opposite sides of the nucleus as the center of the
nucleus continues to contract. Once fully closed at the center, a
form of bio-scizzor cuts the original cell in two, forming two
distinct entities, exactly the same as the original single cell.
Finally we get to the so called Telophase. Here, new membranes
form around the new nuclei and 2 new cells take shape. Once
again, as stated at the beginning of this section, all 23
chromatid in each cell, unzip their DNA into their respective
nucleui.
Histone Acetylation
NHGRI/NCBI Histone Sequence Database
Chromatin Structure: Nucleosome Formation and Positioning
Variation in Gene / Chromosome Structure
*********
---- ----
|
Sidebar Comments, links and references
Understanding micro units of measure
1 nano
(1n) is 1/1000000000 or 0.000000001
so: 1nm (meter) is 0.000000001 meters
1 micro
(1u) is 1/1000000 or 0.000001
so: 1um (meter) is 0.000001 meters
Here are some examples of real world elements size
000.1nm (size of one hydrogen atom)
000.8nm (the size of one amino acid
002.0nm (DNA Alpha Helix filament ©
004.0nm (DNA Helix filament diameter)
004.0nm (Globular protein) ©
010.0um (Human red blood cell) ©
100.0um (Human egg cell)
-----------------------------------------
meiosis
meiosis is cell division of a mothers egg after being
fertilized by a spirm (sperm).
-----------------------------------------
some DNA facts
DNA stands for DeoxyriboNucleicAcid
The 4 chemical components that make up the chemical rungs of DNA are called:
- Adenine(A)
- Guanine(G)
- Cytosine(C)
- Thymine(T)
The above 4 simple components, make up the 3000 Million or 3 Billion instructions of genetic code
which bio-genetic engineers are currently still in the process of mapping.
Valid DNA code (2% of the total) falls between the so called "Start Codon"
and "Stop Codon". Although in genetic mapping all code is analysed, it
has been found that the code that does not fall between the genetic
markers "Start Codon" and "Stop Codon" seems useless.
A base compound is one that is chemically (ph > 7) a base -- vs. an
acid, which has chemically acid nature (ph < 7).
The 4 components listed above are all chemically - bases.
---------------------------------------
RNA stands for RiboNucleicAcid.
some chromosome facts
A chromatid is 1/2 a pair of a complete chromosome. Normally a
chromosome has 2 identical parts to it, but prior to cell
duplication, the chromosome pair split apart and become known as
chromatids.
Estimated Sizes of Human Chromosomes Site. (Last Updated January 21)
Of the 23 Human Chromosomes that exist, the largest one is #1 and it
has a length of ~10um (10/1000000) of a meter.
The smalest chromosome is #21 and it has a length of ~2um (2/1000000) meter
The human red blood cell has a diameter of approximately ~10.0um.
The smallest chromosone is chromosome #21, and it has a length of ~2um.
The largest is chromosome #1 and has an approximate length of ~10um.
There exists approximatly 1.7m (meters) of genetic DNA code in total
within each cell.
A helical shape is one that has the shape of a slinky toy or spring
----------------------------------------
some facts on how a cells divide
Valid DNA code falls between the so called "Start Codon"
and "Stop Codon". Although in genetic mapping all code is analysed, it
has been found that much of it seems useless?
All Rights Reserved
© Copyright
The section below, is the authors own point of view and is Copyright ©.
I strongly believe, contrary to many bio-scientists, that not only
is the DNA (see below) a chemical instruction set to build proteins,
but it is in fact an electro-chemical brain and molecular clock.
Weather the 23 DNA strings from all 23 chromosomes join together
or plug into some nucleus receptors is not really known. I
however would assume maybe both or some combination there-of does
happen, otherwise how the heck could anything as magnificent as
ourselves or any other organism for that matter exist and evolve,
etc.
Further, I strongly believe that it (DNA)
must be plugged into the nucleus physically, in order for it
to at least receive if not respond to small electric signals
from (at least the rest of the cell it is contained in), perhaps
surrounding cells. This i feel, would be necessary to maintain
cohesion with the whole cellular structure it is part of, and
that surrounds it.
The electo-magnetic spectrum of earth itself
I feel it is not for nothing, that it has been recently found,
that the DNA strands of chromatin are very good conductors of
electricity.
-----------------------------------------
It has been recently found that DNA can conduct electric
current, thus it is currently thaught that many technological
uses can be made of this characterisitic. Man-made DNA could
yield a whole new industry. Since that time and my conviction
of cellular electrical communications, (at or on 02/02/2002)
it has been further found 06/02/2002:
New Scientist: Silicon and cells
*** Diary *** this would correspond to the formation of Ca,Na,K,Cl currents between cell interior and exterior and would be made possible by ion channels serving as Josephson
In this kind of situation one can have
resonance leading to a generation of nerve pulse.
Quantum jumps leading from a localized magnetically
confined harmonic oscillator n=0 Ground state inside axon
to n= 1, 3, 5,.. state localized outside the axon would occur resonantly:
this would correspond to the formation of Ca,Na,K,Cl currents between
cell interior and exterior and would be made possible by ion channels
serving as Josephson junctions.
Classically these transitions correspond to quantum jumps between
circular orbits around magnetic field associated with axon with radius
of orbit proportional to sqrt(n). Note:
Superconductivity is possible only in direction of magnetic flux (axon)
but not otherwise.
 Bioelectromagnetism: Principles
and Applications of Bioelectric and Biomagnetic Fields
Transcranial magnetic stimulation:
using a law of physics to treat psychopathology [JPN - March 1999]
ORMUS Related Scientific References
It is shown that the coherent electric longitudinal vibrations
predicted by Froelich and experimentally detected by Webb in living
cells, actually obey nonlinear optical laws.
These vibrations might form a network of filaments within cells.
Water inside living cell cytoplasm fluctuates between phases of
disordered liquid (solution: "sol") and ordered solid (gelatinous:"gel")
determined by polymerization of the actin cytoskeleton.
Cycles of sol-gel transformations are important in fundamental cellular
processes (movement, growth, mitosis, synapse formation, etc.)
and are regulated by calcium, which in turn may be regulated by
other cytoskeletal structures such as microtubules.
Sol-gel transformations are close to the nature of life, and of
consciousness enigmatic phenomena for which quantum coherence has
been suggested as an explanatory mechanism.
Bioelectromagnetism: Principles and Applications of Bioelectric
and Biomagnetic Fields
Genome Rivals' Genteel Soiree
The researchers seemed to agree
that the software now available
that for analyzing genomic
data simply isn't adequate.
"Each genome has its own
mysteries." "We know that the
mouse assembly I
reported on is not perfect.
We will continue
to optimize the algorithm,"
Sutton said.
Interesting Facts: Cool Facts -
Most living cells contain
a nucleus, a semi-enclosed
compartment where the cell's
DNA (genetic material) is
stored, but bacteria just have a
single, looped DNA molecule,
tangled into a mass called the
nucleoid.
There are over 62,000 miles
(99,780 kilometers)
of veins,arteries, and
capillaries inside of each of us.
The Smallest Genome -->
A bacterium
of the genus Mycoplasma has the
smallest number of genes of any
known self-reproducing organism.
(Some viruses have fewer genes,
but they need to use another
cell's DNA machinery to
reproduce.)
Gene Therapy Tristan da Cunha.
One-third of the population has
asthma also the population
is extreemly inbread.
HOME SITEEditor & Chris Meyer: Please contact me at that site via e-mail
The Ultimate Gamble!
genome, genetic sequencing, Bio-Technology, Bio-Engineering, Proteins, gambling on genetic drugs, HGP, Bio-Ethics, Viagra, etc.
 Studied extensively about PERL and it's heavy use in the HGP
Prior to writing "The Ultimate Gamble" site. Research includes list below.
CN's bioinformatics & other WWW training links ie. DBMS, bio-sequence search sites, protein pattern searching, gene finding, general bio-info
Below is a list of some of the topics
covered on the site:
Protein structure/homology modeling
Sequence comparison
Barton tutorial pages
3D molecular structure viewers
Lists of bioinformatics sites
Tool-center pages (list of biotech
tools) DNA micro arrays
Genome-scale analysis
Gene regulation
Perl in bioinformatics
International nucleotide sequence
database collaboration
Perl 5 by Example: Introduction
How Perl Saved the Human Genome Project.
Problems encountered with perl (bio dot perl dot org)
Sequences of related Proteins Using 3 sequencing techniques. (SAM-T98, PSI-BLAST, and Intermediate Sequence Search (ISS) procedures.
(SCOP) structural classification of proteins database.
In Silico Biology - Articles and databases (predictions and databases of protein folding, behavior, and characteristics)
DNA-RNA, Protein Folding, Bio-technology, On-Line Training
Alternate Medical Site ie. MCT OIL and cancer fighting Fucoidan
With JavaScript slide show!
Cancer fighting Fucoidan info site
-->
==========================================
Structure and Mechanism in Protein Science:
A Guide to Enzyme Catalysis and Protein Folding
Protein Folding:
21 Questions
Protein Folding - 21 Questions
Bioseparation of Proteins: Unfolding/Folding and Validations-1st ed.
Bioseparation of Proteins
Guidebook to Molecular Chaperones and Protein-Folding Catalysts-1st ed.
Guidebook to Molecular Chaperones
Protein Structure, Stability, and Folding-1st ed.
Protein Structure, Stability, and Folding
Workshops on Monte Carlo Approach to Biopolymers and Protein Folding
Workshops on Monte Carlo Approach to Biopolymers and Protein Folding
Homology Folding of Proteins : Application to Cytokine Engineering-1st ed.
Homology Folding of Proteins : Application to Cytokine Engineering
Protein Folding Kinetics: Biophysical Methods-1st ed.
Protein Folding Kinetics
Lattice Models of Protein Folding, Dynamics and Thermodynamics-1st ed.
Lattice Models of Protein Folding, Dynamics and Thermodynamics
Mechanisms of Protein Folding-2nd ed.
Mechanisms of Protein Folding
The Amphipathic Helix-1st ed.
The Amphipathic Helix
Biocatalyst Design for Stability and Specificity
Biocatalyst Design for Stability and Specificity
Mechanisms of Protein Folding-2nd ed.
Mechanisms of Protein Folding
Old and New Views of Protein Folding:
Proceedings of the 24th Taniguchi International Symposium,
Division of Biophysics, Held in Kisarazu
Old and New Views of Protein Folding
Prolyl Hydroxylase, Protein Disulfide Isomerase,
and Other Structurally Related Proteins-1st ed.
Prolyl Hydroxylase
Protein Folding in the Cell
(Advances in Protein Chemistry
Protein Folding in the Cell
Protein Folding in Vivo and in Vitro
Protein Folding in Vivo and in Vitro
Protein Folding Mechanisms: Advances in Protein Chemistry
Protein Folding Mechanisms
Protein Folding Problem and Tertiary Structure Prediction-1st ed.
Protein Folding Problem
Protein Folds: A Distance Based Approach-1st ed.
Protein Folds
Protein Refolding
Protein Refolding
Protein Stability and Folding: A Collection of Thermodynamic Data-1st ed.
Protein Stability and Folding
Protein Stability and Folding: Theory and Practice, Vol. 40-1st ed.
Protein Stability and Folding
Recent Developments in Theoretical Studies of Proteins, Vol. 7
Recent Developments in Theoretical Studies of Proteins
Statistical Mechanics, Protein Structure, and Protein Substrate Interactions
Statistical Mechanics, Protein Structure, and Protein Substrate Interactions
|
SITE
SEARCH
